CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIAL RESTRICTIVE MEASURES (SANCTIONS)
Abstract
The article is devoted to the systematization of the classification of special restrictive measures (sanctions). We identify and describe sanctions types depending on the object country, organizations, person, legal entity, vessel, aircraft, cryptowallet; sender United Nations, regional organization, country; laterality uni-, bi-, tri- and multilateral (four and more senders); sphere of restriction economic, financial, military, transportation, diplomatic, informational, culture and sport, listing main forms each type usually takes; goal terrorism, drug trafficking, armed conflict, human rights, democracy, weapon proliferation, corruption; scale comprehensive and targeted, second including individual, sectoral and sanctions on part of the country's territory; function coercive, constraining, signaling; level of consolidation sanctioned entity, sanctions episode, sanctions case/regime and sanctions policy; sanctions program/regime territorial/geographic and thematic/horizontal; sphere of activity, level of extraterritoriality territory, residents, resident-controlled foreign companies and any foreign company; connection with the sanctioned entity primary and secondary; strictness of the requirement mandatory and voluntary; sanctions rule definite and contingent; conditions negative and positive; and duration fixed and open-ended. We also propose to add sanctions types based on the subject of realization government and law enforcement agencies, companies and subjects of primary financial monitoring; and method of execution momentary and continuous, which would better reflect the practical implementation of restrictions. We use these sanctions types to describe some of the features of the sanctions used by Ukraine, noting the predominance of economic and financial restrictions and the key role of government entities in the sanctions realization. We believe the proposed classification will allow for a better analysis of sender's sanctions policy by taking into account not only the characteristics of the specific sanctions case, but also intrinsic peculiarities of different forms of restrictive measures.
References
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Attia H., Grauvogel J. (2022) International sanctions termination, 1990-2018: Introducing the IST dataset. Journal of Peace Research, vol. 60(4), pp. 709-719. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00223433221087080
Biersteker T. J., Tourinho M., Eckert S. E. (2016) Thinking about United Nations targeted sanctions. In T. J. Biersteker, S. E. Eckert, M. Tourinho (Eds.). Targeted sanctions: the impacts and effectiveness of United Nations action. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 11-37.
Biersteker, J. T., Eckert, S. E., Tourinho, M., Hudáková, Z. (2018) UN targeted sanctions datasets (1991-2013). Journal of Peace Research, vol. 55(3), pp. 404-412. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343317752539
Boucher A., Clement C. (2016) Coordination of United Nations sanctions with other actors and instruments. In T. J. Biersteker, S. E. Eckert, M. Tourinho (Eds.). Targeted sanctions: the impacts and effectiveness of United Nations action. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 119-149.
Brooks R. A. (2002) Sanctions and regime type: what works, and when? Security Studies, vol. 11(4), pp. 1-50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/714005349
Caruso R. (2021) Negative and positive sanctions. In P. A. G. van Bergeijk (Ed.). Research handbook on economic sanctions. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 297-308.
Early B. R. (2021) Making sanctions work: promoting compliance, punishing violations, and discouraging sanctions busting. In P. A. G. van Bergeijk (Ed.). Research handbook on economic sanctions. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 167-186.
Felbermayr, G., Kirilakha, A., Syropoulos, C., Yalcin, E., Yotov, Y. V. (2020) The global sanctions data base. European Economic Review, vol. 129, Article 103561. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2020.103561
Giumelli, F. (2010) New Analytical Categories for Assessing EU Sanctions. The International Spectator, vol 45(3), pp. 131–144. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03932729.2010.504629
Hufbauer G. C., Jung E. (2021) Economic sanctions in the twenty-first century. In P. A. G. van Bergeijk (Ed.). Research handbook on economic sanctions. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 26-43.
Hufbauer, G. C., Schott, J. J., Elliott, K. A., Oegg, B. (2007) Economic Sanctions Reconsidered (3rd ed.). Washington DC: Peterson Institute for International Economics.
Meissner, K. L., Urbanski, K. (2022) Feeble rules: one dual-use sanctions regime, multiple ways of implementation and application? European Security, vol. 31(2), pp. 222-241. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2021.1993189
Mertens, C. (2024) Carrots as sticks: How effective are foreign aid suspensions and economic sanctions? International Studies Quarterly, vol. 68, Article sqae016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqae016
Moret E. (2021) Unilateral and extraterritorial sanctions in crisis: implications of their rising use and misuse in contemporary world politics. In C. Beaucillon (Ed.). Research handbook on unilateral and extraterritorial sanctions. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 19-36.
OpenSanctions. Available at: https://www.opensanctions.org
Portela C., Mora-Sanguinetti J. S. (2023) Sanctions effectiveness, development and regime type. Are aid suspensions and economic sanctions alike? World Development, vol. 172, Article 106370. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2023.106370
Sanctions programs and country information. Available at: https://ofac.treasury.gov/sanctions-programs-and-country-information
Seizures of Cryptocurrency. Available at: https://nbctf.mod.gov.il/en/Minister%20Sanctions/PropertyPerceptions/Pages/Blockchain1.aspx
Thouvenin J.-M. (2021) Articulating UN sanctions with unilateral restrictive measures. In C. Beaucillon (Ed.). Research handbook on unilateral and extraterritorial sanctions. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 149-164.
UK cracks down on illicit ‘shadow fleet’ transporting Russian oil globally. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-cracks-down-on-illicit-shadow-fleet-transporting-russian-oil-globally
Ukraine: U.S. Trade Sanctions Imposed Over CD Piracy. Available at: https://www.rferl.org/a/1098574.html
UNSanctionsApp. Available at: https://unsanctionsapp.com/
